The factory farms normally hold a large number of animals

Factory farming can be perceived as an enterprising activity that is aimed at increasing the animals' productivity at the lowest cost   possible so as to increase the profit margins while meeting the huge market demands.The factory farms normally hold a large number of animals, and mostly cows, pigs, chickens and also turkeys indoors, and the purpose of holding these animals is to produce milk, meat and eggs at the cost effective production level. A wide range of artificial applications are practiced in order to improve the animals' health and production and they include   the application of growth hormones, vitamin supplements and also the use of antimicrobial agents.Due to the large number of animals within a small area, their movements and actions are restricted as these movements and actions are considered to be unnecessary, as the main objective of the farm is to increase productivity which will definitely imply high profits.The breeding of these animals while in factory far ms is controlled by limiting the animals to the production of certain breeds which are likely to be productive depending on the manipulated genetically compositions.The paper emphases on the various practices in the factory farms on animals and their impact on the animals, the environment and also the effect on humanity as the consumers of these products. The paper ends by giving the possible measure that can be put in place to correct evils of factory farms if any as identified in the following arguments.The treatment of animals in factory farms can be perceived as being unfair if the animals are to be regarded as living things which are liable to respond to irritations and other stimuli. The animals that are held in the factory farms are treated unfairly at the expense of the farm owners trying to maximize their profits, hence treating animals like just production units.The animals in factory farms   which are held for the production of meat, eggs and milk are subjected to anima l abuse, genetic compositions are alterations to produce the desired breeds with high productivity levels, they are over crowded and confined in cages which restricts their movements and certain behavioral actions, they are subjected to cruel mutilation, they are handled in a harsh manner, neglected, and they are slaughtered in an inhumane manner (Seitz 216).All the above mentioned unfair treatment of the animals in factory farms has been occurring and is certain to continue increasing as the demand for the products from these animals increase.This scenario of animal abuse has been enabled by the fact that there is no federal   legal protection for these animals like in the case of dogs and cats where these acts are likely to be illegal, which portrays the biasness in the application of law (Francione & Watson 145).The farm animals are equivalent to dogs and cats who are cherished as champions as they less sensitive, intelligent and responsive to pain than the dogs and cats thus t hey need a fair treatment.The animals that are kept in cages, are deprived their freedom to move and also the liberty to exercise, and rather their energies are preserved so as to increase their productivity (Armstrong and Botzler 180). The animals are fed with drugs with an aim of fattening them faster and getting genetically manipulated to grow faster, produce a lot of milk than they can produce naturally and also the laying of eggs made quicker and the quality of eggs ensured.This treatment of the factory farm animal is unfair because it is likely to impose stress on the animals making them to develop some behaviors which are not natural because they are over strained to meet a given production level which is high above the natural level, thus over capacity utilization.This situation also posses the risk of loosing the indigenous breeds due to the genetic manipulation, which eliminates the indigenous traits in animals.There is also a risk of a certain species of animal going into extinction as the genetically modified animals are meant for some specific purposes like the production of meat, egg or milk, while ignoring to consider the future existence of these animals because these genetically modifications are meant to meet the immediate need for profit maximization and not considering the possibilities for the animals to ensure generational progress, without forgetting side effects inherent in the manipulations which might come up later in the future generations including the infertility of the animals (Kistler 90).

Present Status and Future Refinements Essay

Present Status and Fut ure Refinement s Jacqueline Fawcett, Ph. D. , F. A. A. N. Abstract The central concepts and themes of t he discipline of nursing are identified and formalized as nursing’s metaparadigm. Examples illustrate the direction provided by the metaparadigm for theory development. Refinements of the metaparadigm through conceptual models and programs of nursing research are proposed. T he discipline of nursing will advance only through continuous and systematic development and testing of nursing knowledge. Several recent reviews of the status of nursing theory development indicate that nursing has n o established tradition of scholarship. Reviewers have pointed out that most work appears unfocused and uncoordinated, as each scholar moves quickly from one topic to another and as few scholars combine their efforts in circumscribed areas (Chinn, 1983; Feldman, 1980; Hardy, 1983; Roy, 1983; Walker, 1983). Broad areas for theory development’ are, however, beginning to be recognized. Analysis of past and present writings of nurse scholars indicates that theoretic and empirical work has always centered on just a few global oncepts and has always dealt with certain general themes. This paper identifies these central concepts and themes and formalizes them as nursing’s metaparadigm. Examples are given to illustrate the direction provided by the metaparadigm for theory development. The paper continues with a discussion o f refinements of t he metaparadigm needed at the levels of ja cqueline Fawcett, Ph. D. , F. A. A. N. , i s Associate Professor, and Section Chairperson, Science and Role Development, School of Nursing, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Page 84 disciplinary matrices and exemplars nd concludes with proposals for future work needed to advance to the discipline of nursing. Present Status of the Metaparadigm of Nursing The metaparadigrn of any discipline i s a statement or group of statements identifying its relevant phenomena. These statements spell out the phenomena of interest in a most global manner. No attempt i s made to be specific or concrete at the metaparadigm level. Eckberg & Hill (1979) explained that the metaparadigm â€Å"acts as an encapsulating unit, or framework, within which the more restricted . . . structures develop† (p. 927). The Central Concepts of Nursing Evidence supporting the existence of a metaparadigm of nursing i s accumulating. A review of the literature on theory development in nursing reveals a consensus about the central concepts of the discipline-person, environment, health, and nursing (Fawcett, 1983; Flaskerud & Halloran, 1980). This consensus i s documented by the following statements: O ne may. . . demarcate nursing in terms of four subsets: 1 ) persons providing care, 2) persons with health problems receiving care, 3) the environment in which care i s given, and 4 ) an end-state, well-being. (Walker, 1971, p. 429) The major concepts identified (from an nalysis of the components, themes, topics, and threads of the conceptual frameworks of 50 baccalaureate nursing programs) were Man, Society, Health, and Nursing. (Yura &Torres, 1975, p. 22) The units person, environment, health, and nursing specify the phenomena of interest to nursing science. (Fawcett, 1978, p. 25) Nursing studies the wholeness or health of humans, reco gnizing that humans are in continuous interaction with their environments. (Donaldson & Crowley, 1978, p. 119) Image: The Journal of Nursing Scholarship Nursing’s focus i s persons, their environments, their health and nursing itself. Bush, 1979, p. 20) Nursing elements are nursing acts, the p atient, and health. (Stevens, 1979, p. l l ) The foci of nursing are the individual in relation to health, the environment, and the change process, whether it be maturation, adaptation, or coping. (Barnard, 1980, p. 208) Nursing i s defined as the diagnosis and treatment of human responses to actual or potential health problems. (American Nurses‘ Association, 1980, p. 9 ) The four conceptual areas of nursing are: the person receiving nursing; the environment within which the person exists; the health-illness continuum within which the erson falls at the time of the interaction with the nurse; and finally, nursing actions themselves. (Flaskerud, cited in Brink, 1980, p. 665) The do main of nursing has always included the nurse, the patient, the situation in which they find themselves, and the purpose of their being together, or the health of the patient. In more formalized terms, . . . the major components of the nursing [metalparadigm are nursing (as an action), client (human being), environment (of the client and of the nurse-client), and health. (Newman, 1983, p. 388) There i s general agreement that the central oncepts of the discipline of nursing are the nature of nursing, the individual who received nursing care, society-environment, and health. (Chinn, 1983, p. 396) These statements indicate that there i s considerable agreement among scholars as t o the concepts central to the discipline of nursing. In fact, a review of the literature revealed no contradictory statements. RecurringThemes The relationships between and among the concepts-person, environment, health, nursing-are elaborated in recurring themes found in works of nurse scholars since Nightin gale (1859). These themes are listed in Table 1. Summer, 1984, Volumo XVI, blo. 3 Metaparadigm of Nursing TABLE 1 THEMES OF THE YETAPARAWW OF NURSING 1. The principles and laws that govern the life-process, well-being. and optimum function of human beings, sick or well. 2. The patterning of human behavior in interaction with the environment in normal life events and critical life situations. 3. The process by which positive changes in health status are elfected. (Donaldson& Crowley, 1978, p. 113; Gortner, 1980, p. 180) The four central concepts and three recurring themes identify the phenomena central to the discipline of nursing in an abstract, global manner. They represent the metaparadigm. As such, they have provided some direction for nursing theory development. As Newman (1983) explained: It i s within the context of these four major components and their interrelationships that theory development in nursing has proceeded. Theoretical differences relate to the emphasis placed on one or more of the components and to the way in which their relationships are viewed. (p. 388) The relationship between the concepts â€Å"person† and â€Å"health† i s considered in the first theme. Theories addressing this theme describe, explain, or predict individuals‘ behavior during eriods of wellness and illness. Newman’s (1979) theory of health i s one example. This theory includes the concepts of movement, time, space, and consciousness. Newman proposes that â€Å"the expansion of consciousness i s what life, and therefore health, i s a ll about† (p. 66). Another example i s Orem’s (1980) theory of self-care, wh ich maintains that â€Å"self-care and care of dependent family members are learned behaviors that purposely regulate human structural integrity, functioning, and human development† (p. 28). S till another example i s Orern’s theory of self-care deficits. This theory maintains that individuals â€Å"are subject t o healthrelated or health-derived limitations that render them incapable of continuous selftare or dependent care or that result in ineffective or incomplete care† (p. 2 7). The relationships among the concepts †person,â€Å" †environment,† and â€Å"health† are considered in the second theme. Theories addressing this theme Summer, 1B84, Volume XVI, No. 3 describe, explain, or predict individuals’ behavioral patterns as they are influenced by environmental factors during periods of wellness and illness. Such theories place the individuals ithin the context of their surrounding environment rather than considering them in isolation, as in the first theme. Roy and Roberts’ (1981) theory of the person as an adaptive system i s an example. This theory proposes that the person i s a system that adapts to a constantly changing environment. Adaptation i s accomplished through the action of coping mechanisms called the â€Å"regulator† and the â€Å"cognator. † The relationships among the â€Å"person,’’ â€Å"health,† and â€Å"nursing† are considered in the third theme. Environment may also be taken into account here. This heme i s addressed by theories about nursing practice. These theories describe or explain nursing processes or predict the effects of nursing actions. King‘s (1981) theory of goal attainment i s one example. King explains: that a paradigm, or disciplinary matrix, i s more restrictive than a metaparadigm, and that i t â€Å"represents the shared commitments of any disciplinary community, including symbolic generalizations, beliefs, values, and a host of other elements† (p. 926). The authors went on to say, A disciplinary matrix may be seen as the special subculture of a community. It does ot refer to the beliefs of an entire discipline (e. g. biology), but more correctly t o those beliefs of a specialized community (e. g. phage workers in biology). (p. 926) Identification of the metaparadigm i s an important step i n the evolution of a scholarly tradition for nursing. The n e x t step i s r efinement o f t h e metaparadigm concepts and themes, which occurs at the level of the paradigm or disciplinary matrix, rather than at that of the metaparadigm. The Disciplinary Matrix Eckberg and Hill (1979) explained Most disciplines have more than one disciplinary matrix. Each one represents a distinctive frame of reference within which the metaparadigm phenomena are viewed. Furthermore, each disciplinary matrix reflects a particular research tradition by identifying the phenomena that are within its domain of inquiry, the methods that are to be used to investigate these phenomena, how theories about these phenomena are to be tested, and how d ata are to be collected (Laudan, 1981, p. 151). More specifically, the research tradition of each disciplinary matrix includes six rules that encompass all phases of an investigation. The first rule identifies the precise nature f the problem to be studied, the purposes to be fulfilled by the investigation, or both. The second rule identifies the phenomena that are to be studied. The third rule identifies the research techniques that are to be employed and the research tools that are to be used. The fourth rule identifies the settings in which data are to be gathered and the subjects who are to provide the data. The fifth rule identifies the methods to be employed in reducing and analyzing the data. The sixth rule identifies the nature of contributions that the research will make to the advancement of knowledge. (Schlotfeldt, 1975, p. ) In nursing, disciplinary matrices are most clearly exemplified by such conceptual models as Johnson‘s (1980) Behavioral System Model, King’s (1981) Open Systems Model, Levine’s (1973) Conservation Model, Neuman’s (1982) Systems Model, Orem’s (1980) Self-care Model, Rogers’ (1980) Life Process Model, and Roy’s (1984) Adaptation Model. Each Image: The Journal of Nursing Scholarship Page 85 . . . nurse and client interactions are characterized by verbal and nonverbal communication, in which information i s exchanged and interpreted; by transactions, in which values, needs, and wants of each ember of the dyad are shared; by perceptions of nurse and client and the situation; by self in role of client and self in ro le of nurse; and by stressors influencing each person and the situation in time and space. – (p. 144) Orem’s ( 1 980) theory of nursing systems is another example. This theory maintains that †nursing systems are formed when nurses use their abilities to prescribe, design, and provide nursing for legitimate patients (as individuals or groups) by performing discrete actions and systems of actions† (p. 29). Refinement of the Metaparadigm Metaparadigm of Nursing f these nursing models puts forth a distinctive frame of reference within which the metaparadigm phenomena are viewed. Each provides needed refinement of the metaparadigm by serving as a focus-†ruling some things in as relevent, and ruling others out due to their lesser importance† (Williams, 1979, p. 96). Conceptual models of nursing are beginning to make major contributions to the development of nursing theory. Theories derived directly from King’s model and from Orem’s model were identified earlier. A considerable amount of empirical work designed to test unique nursing theories as well as heories borrowed from other disciplines i s n ow being guided by nursing models. Some of the studies are listed in Table 2. TABLE 2 Examples of Research Derived From Conceptual Models of Nursing Oorothy Johnson’s BehavioralSystem Model -An instrument for theory and research development using the behavioral systems model for nursing: The cancer patient. Part I (Derdiarian, 1983). -An instrument for theory and research development using the behavioral systems model for nursing: The cancer patient. Part II (Derdiarian & Forsythe, 1983). -Achievement behavior in chronically ill children (Holaday, 1 974) Maternal response to their chronically ill infants’ attachment behavior of crying (Holaday, 1981) -Maternal conceptual set development: Identifyingpatterns of maternal response to chronically ill infant crying (Holaday, 1 982) -Development of a research tool : Patient indicators of nursing care (Majesky, Brester, & Nishio, 1 978) Myra Levine’s Conservation Model -Effects of lifting techniques on energy expenditure: A preliminary investigation (Geden, 1 982) – A comparision of two bearing-downtechniques during the second stage of labor (Yeates & Roberts, 1984) Betty Neuman’s Systems Model Effects of information on postsurgical coping (Ziemer. 1 983) Dorothea Orem’s Self-care Model -Application of Orem’s theoretical constructs to selfcare medication behaviors in the elderly (Harper, 1984) -Development of an instrument to measure exercise of self-care agency (Kearney & Fleischer, 1 979) Martha Roger’s Life Process Model -The relationship between identification and patterns of change in spouses’ body images during and after pregnancy (Fawcett, 1977) -Patients’ perceptions of time: Current research (Fitzpatrick, 1 980) -Reciprocy and helicy used t o relate mEGF and wound healing (Gill & Atwood, 1 981) Therapeutic touch as energy exchange: Testing the theory (Ouinn, 1 984) Callista Roy’s Adaptation Model -Needs of cesarean birth parents (Fawcett, 1981) -An exploratory study of antenatal preparation for ce- Page 86 sarean birth (Fawcett & Burritt, in press) -Clinical tool development for adult chemotherapy patients: Process and content (Lewis, Firsich. & Parsell, 1 979) -Content analysis of interviews using a nursing model: A look at parents adapting to the impact of childhood cancer (Smith, Garvis, & Martinson, 1 983) Despite the contributions already made by nursing models to theory development, much more work i s needed. In particular, rules addressing methodology and instrumentation must be specified. Moreover, programs of research emanating from each model must be conducted to refute or validate nursing theories. Programmatic research probably i s carried out most expediently by communities of scientists. Hardy (1983) explained that each community of scientists i s . . . a g roup of persons w h o are aware of their uniqueness and the separate identity of their group. The have a special coherence which separates them from neighboring groups, and this special bond means they have a shared set of values and a common commitment which operates as hey work together t o achieve a common goal. Coordination of their activities may include interaction among the coordination of institutions, organizations, groups, and individuals. Such coordinated groups hold a common perspective, common values and common bonds, a nd they have common sets of activities and functions which they carry out to achieve a common ou tcome. (p. 430) Each community of scientists, then, represents a distinctive subculture, or disciplinary matrix, of the parent discipline. It can be argued that communities of scientists may be formed outside the organizing framework of nursing models. However, it also can be argued that conceptual models of nursing, like the disciplinary matrices of other disciplines, are the most logical nuclei for communities of scientists. This argument i s supported by three facts. First, the curricula of most schools of nursing now are based on conceptual models. Second, most graduate programs and many undergraduate programs offer courses dealing with the content and uses of nursing models. And third, clinical agencies are beginning to organize the delivery of nursing care according to the tenets of conceptual ‘models. image: The Journal of Nursing Scholarship Collectively, these facts mean that cademicians, students, clinicians, and administrators are thinking about nursing theory, nursing research, and nursing practice within the context of explicit conceptual models. It i s probable, then, that eventually the development of a ll nursing theory will be directed by nursing models. It may even by possible to categorize seemingly isolate d past and current work according to conceptual models. This should provide more organization for extant nursing knowledge and should identify gaps and needed areas of inquiry more readily than is possible now. Moreover, such an endeavor should identify members of different ommunities of scientists to each other as w ell as t o the larger scientific community. Exemplars S till further refinement of the metaparadigm i s needed a t the most restrictive level-that of the exemplar. Eckberg and Hill (1979) identified the function of an exemplar as permitting â€Å"a way of seeing one’s subject matter on a concrete level, thereby allowing puzzle solving to take place† (p. 927). They went on to explain: For a discipline to b e a science it must engage i n puzzle-solving activity; but puzzle solving can only be carried out if a community shares concrete puzzle solutions, or exemplars. It i s t he exemplar that i s i mportant, not merely the disciplinary matrix, and certainly not merely the general presuppositions of t he community [i. e. , the metaparadigm]. The latter may be important, but they do n ot direct ongoing, dayto-day research. (p. 927) There i s some evidence of exemplars in nursing. This includes but is not limited to Fitzpatrick’s (1980) programmatic research on time perception; studies o effects of information f about a threatening procedure on a patient’s responses to the procedure (e. g. , Hartfied, Cason, & Cason, 1982; Johnson, Fuller, Endress, & Rice, 1978; Ziemer, 19831, and investigations of actors contributing to the outcomes of social support (Barnard, Brandt, Raff, & Carroll, 1984 in press). These researchers are beginning to solve some of the major puzzles of nursing. However, more work i s needed to identify other puzzles and to develop methods for their solutions. Summer, 1984, Volume XVI, No. 3 Metaparadigm of Nursing Con clusion It is time to formally accept the central concepts and themes of nursing as the metaparadigm of the discipline. It i s also time to direct efforts toward furf ther refinement o this metaparadigm by developing specific rules for the empirical work needed to generate nd test nursing theories within the context of conceptual ‘models. The metaparadigm must be refined still further through the developing of new puzzle-solving activities that will provide answers to the most pressing problems encountered by nurse clinicians, educators, and ddministrators. Any one of these activities would in itself make a significant contribution to the discipline; a ll three could quite possibly be the major accomplishments of the decade. ‘As used here, theory development reft. r to generation a nd testing of theory. and encornpasiei †ivory tower† theorizing as well as empirical rewarch. References American Nurses’ As5ocialion. Nursing: A social policy statement. Kansas City, Missouri: ANA, 1980. Barnard, K. E. Knowledge for practice: Direction5 for the future. Nursing Research, 1980. 29, 208-21 2. Barnard, K . E. , Brandt, P. , Raff. 8.. & Carroll, P. (Ed,. ). Social support and families of vulnerable infants. New York: March of Dimes, 1984. Brink, P. 1. Editorial. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 1980, 2, 665-666. Buih, H . A. Models for nursing. Advances i n Nursing Science, 1979, l ( 2 ) . 13-21. Chinn, P. L. Nursing theory development: Where we have been and where we are going. In N. L. Chaska (Ed. ), The nursing profession: A time to speak. New York: McCraw-Hill, 1983. Donaldson, S. K. , & Crowley, D. M . The discipline of nursing. Nursing Outlook, 1978, 26, 113-120. Eckberg, D. L .. & Hill, L. , Jr. The paradigm concept and sociology: A critical review. American Sociological Review, 1979, 44,925-937. Fawcett, 1. The â€Å"what† of theory development. In Theory developmenk What, why, how? (pp. 17-33). New York: National League for Nursing, 1978. Fawcett, 1. (1983). Hallmarks of success in nursing theory development. In P. L. Chinn, (Ed. ), Advances i n nursing theory development (pp. -17). Rockville, Maryland: Aspen. Feldrnan, H. R. Nursing research in the 1980s: Issues and implications. Advances in N ursing Science, 1980, 3(1);85-92. Fitzpatrick, 1. J . Patients perceptions of time: Current research. International Nursing Review, 1980, 27, 148-153, 160. Flaskerud. 1. H. , & Halloran, E. J. Areas of agreement in nursing theory development. Advances in Nursing Science, 1980, 3(1), 1-7. Hardy. M. Metaparadigrnsand theory development. In N. L. Chaska (Ed. ), The nursing profession: A t ime t o speak. New York: McCraw-Hill, 1983. Hartfield. M. k Cason, C. L. , & Cason, C. J . Effects of , information about a threatening procedure on patients‘ expectations and emotional distress. Nursing Research, 1 982,31,202-206. lohnson, D. E . The behavioral system model for nursing. In J . P. Riehl & C. Roy, (Eds. ), Conceptual models for nursing practice (2nd ed. ). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1980. Johnson. 1 . E. , Fuller, S . 5.. Endress, M. P . , & Rice, V S. . Altering patients’ responses to surgery: An extension and replication. Research in Nursing and Health, 1978, 1 , 111-121. King. I. M. A theory for nursing: Systems, concepts, process. New York: Wiley, 1981. Neurnan, B . The Neuman systems model: Application t o nursing education and practice. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1982. Newrnan, M. A. Theory development in nursing. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis, 1979. Newrnan, M . A. The continuing revolution: A history of nursing science. I n N. L. Chaska (Ed. ), The nursing profession: A time t o speak. New York: McGrawHill, 1983. Nightingale, F. Notes on nursing: What it is, a nd what it i s not. London: Harrison, 1859. (Reprinted by L i p pincott, 1946) Orem, D. E. Nursing: Concepts of practice (2nd ed. ). New York: McCraw-Hill, 1980. Rogers, M. E . A n introduction to t he theoretical basisk f nursing. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis, 1970. Roy, C. I ntroduction to nursing: An adaptation model. (2nd Ed. ). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: PrenticeHall, 1984. Roy, C. Theory development in nursing: Proposal for direction. In N. L. Chaska (Ed. ), The nursing profession: A time t o speak. New York: McCraw-Hill, 1983. Roy, C. , & Roberts, S . L . Theory construction i n nursing: An adaptation model. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1981. Schlotfeldt, R. M. The needs for a conceptual framework, In P . J. Verhonick (Ed. ), Nursing research I. Boston: Little, Brown. 1975. Stevens, 8. J. N ursing theory. Analysis, application, evaluation. Boston: Little, Brown, 1979. Walker, L. 0. Toward a clearer understanding of the concept of nursing theory. Nursing Research, 1971, 20, 428-435. Walker, L. 0. Theory and research in the development of nursing as a discipline: Retrospect and prospect. In N . L. Chaska (Ed. ), The nursing profession: A time to speak. New York: McCraw-Hill, 1983. Williams, C. A. The nature and development of conceptual frameworks. In F. S . Downs & I . W . Fleming, (Eds. ) Issues in nursing research. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1979. Ziemer, M. M. Providing patients with information rior t o surgery and the reported frequency of coping behaviors and development of symptoms foll owing surgery. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1982. A Response to D r. J . Fawcett’s Paper: â€Å"The Metaparadigm of Nursing: Present Status and Fut ure Refinement s† June N. Brodie, R. N. , Ph. D. D r. Fawcett’s formulation of a metap aradigm for nursing represents a commendable effort to consolidate competing nursing theories and encompasses enormous potential for the advancement of nursing knowledge, research, and practice meriting serious consideration by nursing une N . Brodie, R. N. , Ph. D . i s Associate Professor of Nursing Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. Summer, 1984, Volume XVI, No. 3 scholars. This response focuses on how she accomplished this task (what she did and how she did it as well as what she didn’t do and what needs to be done). Essentially Dr. Fawcett’s metaparadigm can be viewed as an evolution of a nursing metaparadigm and an organization of the growth of nursing knowledge rather than as a completed and finalized product. To be more explicit, the basis of the paper exhibits the spirit of Darwinian Evolution and ould be treated as a manifestation of Image: The Journal of Nursing Scholarship a transitional phase i n the competition for the survival of the fitte st (theory). The metaparadigm represents a serious and scholarly attempt to negotiate entry into a different level of the theoretical arena of nursing knowledge. This task was accomplished by examining the concepts derived from the phenomena of the discipline and converging these concepts into a context pertinent to the domain of nursing by providing a structure (a metaparadigm) that has the potential of consolidating disparate nursing theories into Page 87

Human Right Law Coursework (Final Year LLB Law) Essay

Human Right Law Coursework (Final Year LLB Law) - Essay Example It is in this context that the concept of ‘living instrument’ is often challenged by critics under the scepticism that considering present conditions may be contradictory and evidently different from the set guidelines and regimes followed by state courts; thus raising perplexities and conflicts amid the beneficiaries and the law enforcers. Emphasising this scepticism concerning the effectiveness of the living instrument, Brenda Hale (Baroness Hale of Richmond), stated in her lecture on â€Å"Common law and Convention law: the limits to interpretation† that the living instrument incorporated by the court of Strasbourg should have certain limits and it should not be unstoppable such as the beanstalk grown from â€Å"magic beans†2. Contextually, the primary intention of the essay will be to evaluate the past decisions of cases laid by the Strasbourg Court and critically assess the limits stated by Lady Hale in the context. The essay will also evaluate the cha nces or the probability of introducing any limits in the use of the living instrument in the Strasbourg Court. Discussion Living Instrument The ‘living instrument doctrine’ is often regarded as one of the founding principles of the Strasbourg case-law. Based on this principle, the conflicts registered in the ECHR are interpreted in the light of present day condition. In general terms, the aspect of a living instrument can be explained as an approach of the ECHR to consider the present day conditions while making a decision rather than what the drafters thought way back in the conventional era. This idea of the court is often regarded as â€Å"dynamic or evaluative†, which is however criticised as directly contradictory to the concept of ‘originalism’3. It will be crucial to mention that since the convention is considered and practiced as a living instrument, it is bound to consider only the present day conditions in order to ensure the practicality a nd effectiveness of the ECHR4. This particular notion adopted by ECHR, as a living instrument, can be comprehensively understood with reference to the cases of Mata Estevez v Spain (2001) and Schalk and Kopf v Austria (2010). For example, in the case of Mata Estevez v Spain (2001), the Strasbourg Court disapproved that the relationship between same-sex couples falls within the principles of Article 8 (â€Å"Right to respect for private and family life†) of ECHR and thus cannot be considered to be under the family scope to be entitled for the related human rights. However, in the case of Schalk and Kopf v Austria (2010), the court approved the relationship of same sex couples to be applicable under the principle of Article 8 of ECHR. In this case, the court considered the present day condition where same sex couples are treated and accepted with utmost respect in the society5. Strictly following the principle of ‘living instrument’ can give rise to various drawbac ks in the law enforcement procedure, which has become the base of continuing debate on the effectiveness of

The Galapagos and Sustainable Tourism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Galapagos and Sustainable Tourism - Essay Example Then the announcer’s voice comes over the almost hypnotic spectacle: the flamingos were among the inhabitants of the Galapagos Islands. I was mildly surprised because we had just finished a research on the Galapagos, where my group and I discussed the unique and delicate ecosystem of this isolated archipelago. Flamingos are not found solely in the Galapagos, to be sure. But something in their beauty and grace will tell you that the loss of even one of these to the pollution and degradation of human wastefulness is an unspeakable thing. What more those species that could be found only in the Islands? Once they are gone, they are gone forever. I think that this is the remarkable concept behind sustainability, the acknowledgment that earthly life should go on to take its natural course for as long as it can, as it had for millions of years before man even appeared. Man’s emergence in the last second of the earth’s clock, as it is so often described, should not be th e cause of her sudden demise, least of all because people wanted to go around enjoying themselves. Tourism is more than just having fun. The saying is that travel is the best teacher, which is entirely true because travel enriches one’s experiences, broadens his perspective and expands his understanding. It would have been wonderful if, as a class, we could have visited these places we researched about, as it would have added a third dimension to the book pages we have been moving around in. Other than this, this research project.

Information sensitivity and protection of data Essay

Information sensitivity and protection of data - Essay Example It is important because organizations’ policies in some ways reflect the underlying culture and values. Modern organizations instill performance and cultural values such as mutual trust and confidence as an integrative mechanism (Fairholm & Fairholm, 2008: pp.103-104) rather than exercising sheer authority and control (Masters, 2005: p. 271). Mayo Foundation (referred to as Mayo in rest of paper) outlines a guidance oriented policy. In contrast to Mayo, Beth Israel Deaconess (referred to as Beth Israel in rest of paper) has a strongly authoritative tone in outlining its policy with strong worded phrases such as â€Å"Users have no expectation of personal privacy of any kind related to their use† compared with â€Å"contents will not be monitored, observed, viewed, displayed or reproduced in any form by anyone other than the sender or recipient unless specifically authorized by an officer† in Mayo for the same purpose. Georgetown University (referred to as Georget own in rest of paper), on the other hand, presents a matter-of-factly and exhaustive policy covering several aspects of security separately. Amongst the three policies, Mayo was found to be the most well structured and easier to follow with cross referencing links leading to further details, such as local implementations or human resource policies, for specific areas where needed. Some of the common themes followed in each policy are confidentiality, integrity and availability of information. These themes are also recognized by NIST as foundations for an information security policy (Ross et al, 2007: p. 4). At a specific level, prudent use of resources, data access control and physical security are found common in all three policies. While these themes are covered in each document, the way they are implemented and enforced is different. For example, in terms of confidentiality, Mayo clearly and concisely describes how information is to be accessible to authorized personnel at authorized

Life in the Antebellum U.S Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Life in the Antebellum U.S - Essay Example The Native Americans were the initial occupants of land in America. They hunted and gathered to sustain their nutritional requirements. President Thomas Jefferson saw the institution of a policy which allowed Native Americans to retain their ancestral lands east of the Mississippi. The only condition attached to this was that the native population was to assimilate themselves with the rest of the population. They were to supplement their hunting and gathering practices with agriculture. As time elapsed, it became impossible for the government retain their policy. The rapid population increase among the immigrants and Whites in America made it improbable for the government to retain this policy. They, therefore, resorted in the displacement of Native Americans from their ancestral land. The president Andrew Jackson signed 'the Indian Removal Act’ on May 26, 1830 (Keegan 72). The acquired land was to be used to set up plantations. These would ensure large-scale production of cro ps that would be used for food and other industries. It would also provide the immigrants with a place to settle in; where they could begin building their lives. Time ensued, and the Whites encroached on Native American’s land outnumbering the native population. They assumed total ownership of the land and established their own institutions and systems. The Natives signed treaties that guaranteed them equal land West of Mississippi in exchange for their original parcels of land. Tribes that did not co-operate faced forceful eviction from their lands by government officials who abused their power. For example, the Cherokee people experienced forceful eviction from their land. This was after signing the ‘Treaty of New Echota’ by a small part of the entire tribe. The tribal leaders missed out of the entire treaty signing process. This led to the death of estimated 4,000 tribe members in 1835. The march came to be known as the ‘Trail of Tears’ (Keegan 27 ). The government justified their actions by claiming that the natives’ presence disrupts the harmony in the region. They also claimed that the land would benefit the American population. However, this was not entirely true. Many of the government officials were greedy and simply desired sole ownership of the land. This led them to act in inhumane ways that led to the death of many Natives. These officials also did not honor the terms of the treaties in which they coerced the natives to sign. The Antebellum period saw increased manufacturing of products in America. Most manufacturers were, therefore, in need of cheap labor to meet their manufacturing demands. This could only be provided by immigrant workers. There were two categories of immigrant workers in the antebellum period. The first lot is the workers who migrated to America left their homes to search for a means to sustain their livelihood without coercion. The others underwent forceful eviction from their countries w ithout their approval. The zeitgeist of that time supported the expansive use of slave labor. The thriving slave market profited from the sale of slaves acquired from conquered states in the African continent (Keegan 33). A variety of factors worked together to contribute to widespread colonialism; and in turn to slavery all around the world. The superior states were always in constant disagreement as they all rushed to acquire colonial territories overseas. The Berlin conference 1885-1886 came up with guidelines of

Measuring Globalization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Measuring Globalization - Essay Example The spread of globalization, according to many, allows for free trade and free markets in most of the developing countries. This is with the aim of alleviating poverty. Many corporations, from developed countries, are responsible for running the lives of many individuals. Globalization, today, is seen as a means to try and calculate the gap that exists between the poor and the rich. Economists try to address globalization, and the effect it may have on different individuals and countries. If there is a constant or an even growth in a country, there is likely to be more satisfaction. This is unlike when there is an uneven growth (Guinness 194). This is because the latter indicates that some areas will be better off than other areas. The most common method of measuring the globalization level in a country is the use of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita in a region. It might be; import or export or the total consumption on import/export GDP in the region. This represents the final market value of goods in a country produced or consumed or a sum of both these factors within a year. In measuring globalization through the GDP, an increase in exports increases the country’s GDP, thus; symbolising growth in the country’s economic stature (Maher 109). The higher the annual growth rates, the higher the economic growth, through time. It is through such a constant method that allows for a country to trade freely along international lines. This may be because; their products are capturing a wider, global market. This indicates that